Technic of Performance Appraisal

Technic of Performance Appraisal

According to (Muraly, 1994 cited in Mukherjee, 2012, p.140). Negative impact of favorable evaluation directly pave the way for raising suspicions in the minds of the employees. The main goal of the PA in organizations is to improve employee performance (Murphy and Cleveland, 1991 cited in Dijk and Schodl, 2015, p.716).There are numerous methods to measure employee’s performance appraisal but some of these methods are not suitable in some cases. Effective appraisal systems should address clarity, openness, and fairness; recognize productivity through rewards; and be cognizant of appraiser leadership qualities (Winston & Creamer, 1997 cited in Jafari, Bourouni and Amiri, 2009).

Performance Appraisal can be generally categorized into two groups: Traditional (Past oriented) methods and Modern (future oriented) methods. Other researchers have classified the existent methods to three groups; absolute standards, relative standards and objectives .  (Turgut & Mert, 2014). 

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Two types of measures are used in performance appraisal: Objective measures, which are directly quantifiable and Subjective measures which are not directly quantifiable.

Performance Appraisal can be broadly classified into two categories as Traditional Methods and Modern Methods (Turgut & Mert, 2014). 

Traditional Methods

Traditional Methods are relatively older methods of performance appraisals. This method is mainly based on studying the personal qualities of the employees. It may include knowledge, initiative, loyalty, leadership and judgment.

Ranking Method

In order to Dessler. (2011),  ranking  method is mainly based on ranking of employees  from best  to worst on a particular trait, choosing highest, then lowest, until all ranked

Graphic Rating Scales

Paterson developed  a  graphic  scale  to provide  the reliability,  consistency  over  time,  usefulness  and practicality.  Bradshaw in  1931 discussed  improvements to the  graphic  rating  scale  that  included  “behaviorism”  to anchor the  scales and  help better  illustrate the trait. In 1972, Flynn told that the five to nine scale points result in the highest quality  of  ratings.  According to Dessler. (2011), Graphic Rating Scale is a scale that lists a number of traits and a range of performance for each. The employee is then rated by identifying the score that best describes his or her level of performance for each trait.

Critical Incident Method

The Critical Incident Technique is defined as a set of procedures designed to describe human behavior by collecting description of events having special significance and meeting systematically defined criteria. Identification of the critical incidents during task performance can be a individual process or a mutual process between user and evaluator. According to (Dessler et.al, 2011). Critical Incident method is keeping a record of

Checklist method  - Performance appraisal method that consist of a list of items, each of which describes a characteristic of an organization or an event The attribute may or may not be present, or it may be present to varying degrees measured on a simple scale, simply yes no method (Amin, et al., 2015).

Modern Methods

Modern Methods were devised to improve the traditional methods. It attempted to improve the shortcomings of the old methods such as biasness, subjectivity.

 

 Management by Objectives

It comprises of three building blocks: object formulation, execution process and performance feedback. the system approach to MBO(SAMBO).SAMBO comprises seven elements: strategic planning and hierarchy of objects, setting objectives, planning for action, implementation of MBO, control and appraisal, subsystems, and organizational and management development (Turgut and Mert, 2014).

 Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)

BARS were introduced by Smith and Kendall in 1963 with the attention of researchers concerned with the issue of reliability and validity of performance ratings. Behavioral anchor scales are more informative than simple numbers. Behaviorally anchored performance dimensions can be operationally and conceptually can be distinguished from one another. Rater will act as observer not the judge. BARS help rater focus on specific desirable and undesirable incidents of work behavior which can serve as examples in discussing a rating. BARS use behavioral statements or concrete examples to illustrate multiple levels of performance for each element of performance (Turgut and Mert, 2014).

Humans Resource Accounting

The concept of human resource accounting was first developed by Sir William Petty in 1691.But research into true human resource accounting began in the 1960 by Rensis Likert. Prof. Flam holtz defines human resource accounting for people as an organizational resource. The main theory underlying the HRA is: The people are valuable resources of an organization or enterprise, information on investment and value of human resource is useful for decision making in the organization (Tambunan et al., 2022).

360-Degree Appraisal

“Feedback from multiple sources or ‘360 degree feedback’ is a performance appraisal approach that relies on the input of an employee’s superiors, colleagues, subordinates, sometimes customers, suppliers and/or spouses” (Yukl and Lepsinger, 1995).Many companies are combining various sources of performance appraisal information to career create multirater or 360-degree-appraisal and feedback system. 360-degree feedback is intended to provide employees with as accurate a view of their performance as possible by getting input from all angles. Supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers. Although a360-degree feedback can be useful for both developmental and administrative purposes, most companies start with an exclusive focus on development. Employees may be understandably nervous about the possibility of every one “ganging up” on them in their evaluations. For example, a Chicago company, allow managers and employees to develop performance plans, goals, and objectives, and then track their progress over time. Managers can see all of an employee’s goals and action steps on a single screen, and self-appraisals and multiple-rater reviews can be combined into a 360-degree format. After rating an employee’s performance on each goals, raters can provide summary comments in three in three categories(Snell, Bohlander,andVohra,2012).

In conclusion,  each method has advantages and disadvantages which make appraisal method more precise and candid by using of several methods. In order to decision making and determining the best appraisal method, a question should be answered: “The best for what?” It means that the appraisal method should be achieve to which goal or measure which performance? Therefore the manager should determine organization’s goals, objectives and expectations of performance appraisal. Performance appraisal objectives are usually evaluating and nurturing. On the other hand, an effective appraisal method should be reliable, trustworthy and free of error. Moreover, it can be able to compare employees between them and organization’s parts (Jafari, Bourouni and Amiri, 2009,p.95).

List of references

Aggarwal, A. & Thakur, G.S.M. (2013) Techniques of Performance Appraisal-A Review International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) Volume-2, (Issue-3) [online].Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264458875_Techniques_of_Performance_Appraisal-A_Review [Accessed on 20^th of November 2022]

Amin, M. R., Hossain, M. M. & Islam, M. F., (2015). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Weighted Checklist Method as a Tool of Employee Performance Appraisal: Evidence from Prime Bank Limited. 6(7).

Amstrong, M. (2009) ARMSTRONG’S HANDBOOK OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICE. 11^th edn.[online].Available at: Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice by Armstrong, Michael. - PDF Drive [Accessed on 20^th of November 2022]

Dijk, D. V. & Schodl, M. M. (2015) International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp.716–721) 2nd edn. Oxford, Elsevier [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282613144_Performance_Appraisal_and_Evaluation [Accessed on 19th of November, 2022]

Dessler  and  Gary, (2011) Human  Resource  Management, 10th  edn, Prentice Hall

Jafari, M., Bourouni, A. and Amiri, R. H. (2009) 'A New Framework for Selection of the Best Performance Appraisal Method', European Journal of Social Sciences , 7(3) [online] Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228901398_A_new_framework_for_selection_of_the_best_performance_appraisal_method[Accessed on 19th of November, 2022].

Mukherjee, J. (2012) DESIGNING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (p.140). SAGE, United Kingdom.

Snell, S., Bohlander, G. and Vohra, V.(2012) HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT A South-Asian perspective (pp. 322-323). Cengage, Dilhi.

Tambunan, T.S., Ginting, P., Sirojuzilam, S. and Absah, Y. (2022). Analysis applicability of 360-degree feedback performance appraisal as a new technique performance appraisal for civil servants. REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT, ACCOUNTING, AND BUSINESS STUDIES, 1(2), pp.30–39. doi:10.38043/revenue.v1i2.3645. [Online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363879133_Analysis_applicability_of_360-degree_feedback_performance_appraisal_as_a_new_technique_performance_appraisal_for_civil_servants?_iepl%5BgeneralViewId%5D=9af0mvYUhB2stBEqdXP1cDUL2dMgKZ5oO3pQ&_iepl%5Bcontexts%5D%5B0%5D=searchReact&_iepl%5BviewId%5D=061UxU9oa6WFcB11x8p34qwMvnbHNCw1fG2I&_iepl%5BsearchType%5D=publication&_iepl%5Bdata%5D%5BcountLessEqual20%5D=1&_iepl%5Bdata%5D%5BinteractedWithPosition2%5D=1&_iepl%5Bdata%5D%5BwithoutEnrichment%5D=1&_iepl%5Bposition%5D=2&_iepl%5BrgKey%5D=PB%3A363879133&_iepl%5BtargetEntityId%5D=PB%3A363879133&_iepl%5BinteractionType%5D=publicationTitle [Accessed on 19^th November 2022].

Turgut, H. and Mert, I.S. (2014). Evaluation of Performance Appraisal Methods through Appraisal Errors by Using Fuzzy VIKOR Method. International Business Research, 7(10). doi:10.5539/ibr.v7n10p170.[Online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259368087_Role_of_Fuzzy_Techniques_in_Performance_Appraisal_of_Teaching_Staff?enrichId=rgreq-10e8e55c5ef903321e94dbf418d80f7b-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI1OTM2ODA4NztBUzoxMDI2NzE0NDQ4NzMyMjRAMTQwMTQ5MDE4ODYwMA%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf [Accessed on 19^th November 2022].

Winston  and  Creamer,(1997).  Performance  Appraisal.  Available  from:http://filebox.vt.edu/users/dgc2/staffinghandbook/performanceappraisalsingleunit.

Yukl, G and Lepsinger, R. (1995) . How to get the most out of 360° feedback. Training, 32(12), pp.45-50.

Advantages of Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal is a systematic and structured system for measuring and evaluating job related behaviors to discover reasons for performance and identify potential for improvement of an individual(Brucks, 1985).

Performance appraisal is advantageous to both the organization and worker. The advantages of performance appraisal can be categorized into two as (Singh, 2015).

·         Advantages to the organization

·         Advantages to the employee.

Advantages of performance appraisal to the employee.

1.      Performance improvement.

Appraisal systems always aim at improving the performance of employees (“Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Appraisal of Employees,” 2014). It helps to improve the performance of the employee and also it will increase the technological skills and social behavior and work interest of the employee. Therefore, when considering these advantages performance appraisal is a very important system in an organization (Lavanya and Kumar, 2019).

 

2.      Development of the employee

Appraisal systems determine which employee needs more training and becomes primary source of information regarding the strengths and potentialities of the employees. And it make the employee aware about the strengths and weakness of and employee. It will give a self-asset to the employee (Singh, 2015).

 

3.      Right Placement

The appropriate job can be given chosen by and employee with the results of the performance appraisal system (Lavanya and Kumar, 2019).

 

4.      Improve their performance

The results of the performance appraisal system will be given to the employees once they get the results it will help the employees to develop their performance and develop their career. And also the managers can advise the employees to develop their career (Murphy and Cleveland, 1995).

 

5.       Personal development

This leads employees to acquire new skills and improve their career performance. This also encourages employees to do challenging tasks (Singh, 2015).

 

6.      As a motivator

Performance appraisal helps to motivate all employees in their own work because every employee wants to get good results for the performance (Sharon Lea Green, 1992).

Advantages to the organization

1.      Planning and designing training programs

The assessment of strengths and weaknesses of employees is useful for HR department to plan and design training programs. The employees are provided with right training at right time to overcome their weaknesses and to develop their strengths. The content and method of training can be modified according to the human resource requirements (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020).

 

2.      Improves Employee and Management Relationship:

Performance appraisal is also an opportunity for the employees to discuss work related problems with their superiors & to find out ways to resolve them. Promotions and transfers are done on the basis of performance of employees. The fair promotion and transfer policies improve relationship between employees & management. It also facilitates good work atmosphere which directly benefits the final output (Sandler and Keefe, 2003).

 

3.      Promotions and Transfers

Performance appraisal helps to identify the strengths and weakness of and employee which will aid the organization to give promotions and transfers to the relevant employees according to their performance (Eder, 1982).

In conclusion, I work for of one of the leading Animal Feed production company, in early 2019 even if the management set up many targets for those who are in each department in its annual budget proposals. But that could not be achieved many times. And also, management involvement is very low in the organization’s operation works. Eventually it is proposed to introduce annual performance appraisal system to evaluate their employees and later management understood that when the time to time evaluate the performance of their employee’s targets will be able to be achieved easily than the previous.

References

Armstrong, M., Taylor, S., 2020. Armstrong’s handbook of human resource management practice, 15th ed. KoganPage, London, United Kingdom; New York, Ny.[online] Available at: https://www.pdfdrive.com/armstrongs-handbook-of-human-resource-management-practice-e34321800.html [accessed on 22^nd of November 2022]

Brucks, A. (1985). Performance appraisal. The Health Care Manager, 3(4), pp.17–30. [online] Available  at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=NKlQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA420&lpg=PA420&dq=Brucks,+A.+(1985).+Performance+appraisal.+The+Health+Care+Manager,+3(4),+pp.17%E2%80%9330.+doi:10.1097/00126450-198507000-00004.&source=bl&ots=tD6Jg2xWXn&sig=ACfU3U0wSzJy7DMvPmKvquiX2SEJp9Lm0w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAhJOx4sX7AhWizzgGHRj8D7IQ6AF6BAgJEAM[Accessed on 22^nd of November 2022].

Eder, R.W. (1982). Increasing Productivity Through Performance Appraisal/Assessing Performance Appraisal Increasing Productivity Through Performance Appraisal, by Latham Gary P. Wexley Kenneth N.. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981, $6.95 paper. Assessing Performance Appraisal by Sashkin Marshall. San Diego, Cal.: University Associates, 1981, $17 paper. Academy of Management Review, 7(4), pp.644–647. doi:10.5465/amr.1982.4285275.[Online]Available at: https://www.google.com/search?q=Eder,+R.W.+(1982).+Increasing+Productivity+Through+Performance+Appraisal/Assessing+Performance+Appraisal+Increasing+Productivity+Through+Performance+Appraisal,+by+Latham+Gary+P.+Wexley+Kenneth+N..+Reading,+Mass.:+Addison-Wesley,+1981,+$6.95+paper.Assessing+Performance+Appraisal+by+Sashkin+Marshall.+San+Diego,+Cal.:+University+Associates,+1981,+$17+paper.+Academy+of+Management+Review,+7(4),+pp.644%E2%80%93647.+doi:10.5465/amr.1982.4285275.&spell=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0-9Dl3dD7AhUb7jgGHUq9BC0QBSgAegQIBBAB [accessed on 23^rd November 2022].

Lavanya, M. and N. Uday Kumar (2019). ‘Performance Apprasial Practise At L&T’, Think India, 22(3), pp.355–362. doi:10.26643/think-india.v22i3.8263.[Online]Available at: https://thinkindiaquarterly.org/index.php/think-india/article/view/8263 [accessed on 23rd November 2022]

Lotich, P. (2018). Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Appraisals – The Thriving Small Business. [online] The Thriving Small Business. Available at: https://thethrivingsmallbusiness.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-performance-appraisals/[accessed on 23rd November 2022]

Lloyd, K. (2009). Performance Appraisals and Phrases For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons [online]Available at: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kqmaDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Lloyd,+K.,+2009.+Performance+Appraisals+and+Phrases+For+Dummies.+John+Wiley+%26+Sons&ots=TfANLuUv2Y&sig=y9-iUpspdQJwS5awiIxkqSrJOD4[accessed on 22^nd of November 2022]

Murphy, K.R., Cleveland, J.N. (1995). Understanding performance appraisal social, organizational, and goal-based perspectives. Thousand Oaks [U.A.] Sage [19]99[online] Available at: https://www.scirp.org/(S(czeh2tfqw2orz553k1w0r45))/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1143563 [accessed on 22^nd of November 2022]

Sandler, C., Keefe, J. (2003). Performance Appraisal Phrase Book. Simon and Schuster. [Online]Available at: https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Performance-Appraisal-Phrase-Book/Corey-Sandler/9781580629409 [accessed on 22^nd of November 2022]:

Green,S. L. (1992). Performance Appraisal in Context [online] Available at: https://books.google.com/books/about/Performance_Appraisal_in_Context.html?id=pVlMAQAAMAAJ [accessed on 22^nd of November 2022]

Singh, P. (2015). Performance Appraisal and it’s Effectiveness in Modern Business Scenarios. The SIJ Transactions on Industrial, Financial & Business Management, 03(02), pp.01–05. doi:10.9756/sijifbm/v3i2/03040100201. [Online] Available at https://www.academia.edu/17456776/Performance_Appraisal_and_its_Effectiveness_in_Modern_Business_Scenarios?auto=download&email_work_card=download-paper          [accessed on 23^rd November 2022].

Van Dijk, D. and Schodl, M.M. (2015). Performance appraisal and evaluation. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 17, pp.716–721. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.22034-5.[Online]Available at: https://cris.bgu.ac.il/en/publications/performance-appraisal-and-evaluation [Accessed on 23rd of November 2022].

Wynne, B. (1997). Performance appraisal. London: Ft Pitman.[Online]Available at: https://www.xperthr.co.uk/commentary-and-insights/the-evolution-of-performance-management/6108/?viewdesktop=true [accessed on 23^rd November 2022].

Introduction of Performance Appraisal

Historically, performance appraisals have been used for administrative purposes, such as retention, discharge, promotion, and salary administration decisions (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995).

As a introduction, Performance Appraisals are judgement of the characteristics, traits and performance of others. On the basis of these judgements, we assess the worth or value of others, and identity what is good and bad. In industry, performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of personnel by supervisors or others familiar with their performance because employers are interested in knowing about employee performance (Monappa and Saiyadain, 2011). 

In addition to that, traditional performance appraisal simply involves evaluative supervisory comments on past performance. Such a process does not involve any kind of management, per se, as the only performance that can be managed is present and future performance. Performance appraisal involves hierarchical, downward communication from supervisor to subordinate concerning the value the supervisor places on the subordinate’s performance (Mello, 2013).

Furthermore, any action or process that can be associated to performing a task or function can be classified as performance(Mansaray,2019). First and foremost, Performance evaluation of employee is the system of measuring employees' performance (Neo et.al, 2009). And also according to Amstrong (2009), Performance appraisal can be defined as the formal assessment and rating of individuals by their managers at or after a review meeting. And also according to Dina Van Dijk and Michal M Schodl performance appraisal or performance evaluation refers to what are the methods and processes that organization uses to measure the level of their employees.In this scenario employees are given feedback considering and measuring their performance (DeNisi and Pritchard, 2006 cited in Dijk and Schodl, 2015,p.716-721). 

In order to Aggarwal and Thakur (2013), Performance  appraisal  has  been  synonymous  with performance  review,  performance evaluation,  performance assessment,  performance  measurement,  employee evaluation,  personnel  review,  staff  assessment,  service rating.  The development of performance appraisal has four distinct phases.  It is called TEAM (Technical, Extended, Appraisal and Maintenance). Performance  Appraisal  is  reviewing  past  performance, rewarding  past  performance,  goal  setting  for  future performance and employee development(Aggarwal and Thakur, 2013).

Moreover, performance appraisal is a formal, structured system that compares employee performance to established standards. Assessment of job performance is shared with employees being appraised through one of several primary methods of performance appraisals. Elements in performance appraisal methods are tailored to the organization’s employees, jobs, and structure. They include objective criteria for measuring employee performance and ratings that summarize how well the employee is doing. Successful appraisal methods have clearly defined and explicitly communicated standards or expectations of employee performance on the job. Evaluating employee performance is a key responsibility of managers. Performance appraisals, a powerful tool, provide documented feedback on an employee’s level of performance. They help determine continued employment, promotion, transfer, bonuses, and pay raises, and allow for improved communications between managers and employees (Mahapatro, 2010, p264).

Last but not least, according to (Dijk and Schodl, 2015), the term performance appraisal (or performance evaluation) refers to the methods and processes used by organizations to assess the level of performance of their employees. This process usually includes measuring employees’ performance and providing them with feedback regarding the level and quality of their performance. The main goal of the PA is to improve employee performance.

Objectives of performance appraisal,

1.  The appraisal lets the boss and subordinate develop a plan for correcting any deficiencies, and to   reinforce things the subordinate does right.
2. To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees to place right men on right job.
3. To maintain and assess the potential in a person for growth and development.
4. To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related status.
5. It serves as a basis for influencing working habits of the employees.
6. Review the promotional and career planning purpose. provides an opportunity to review employees' career plans in light of his or her exhibited strengths and weaknesses(Dessler and Varkkey,2011).

In conclusion, A part of human resource management is performance appraisal to improve corporate performance, all the while harming the targeted individuals and even undermining the commitment and energy of the survivors. Developing clear, realistic performance standards can also reduce communication problems in performance appraisal feedback among managers, supervisors, and employees. Proposed framework is based on six factors which are training needs evaluation, coincidence with institutes, excite staff to be better, ability to compare, cost of method, and free of error (Jafari, Bourouni and Amiri, 2009).

List of references

Aggarwal, A. & Thakur, G.S.M. (2013) Techniques of Performance Appraisal-A Review International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) Volume-2, (Issue-3) [online].Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264458875_Techniques_of_Performance_Appraisal-A_Review [Accessed on 20^th of November 2022]

Amstrong, M. (2009) ARMSTRONG’S HANDBOOK OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICE. 11^th edn [online].Available at: Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice by Armstrong, Michael. - PDF Drive [Accessed on 20^th of November 2022]

DeNisi, A.S.,Pritchard, R.D.,2006. Performance appraisal, performance management and improving individual performance: a motivational framework. Management and Organization Review 2 (2), 253–277.

Dessler and Varkkey, (2011) HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT . ( p. 320) 12th edn. Dorling Kindersley, India.

Dijk, D. V. & Schodl, M. M. (2015) International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp.716–721) 2nd edn. Oxford, Elsevier [online]. Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282613144_Performance_Appraisal_and_Evaluation[Accessed on 19th of November, 2022]

Jafari, M., Bourouni, A. and Amiri, R. H. (2009) 'A New Framework for Selection of the Best Performance Appraisal Method', European Journal of Social Sciences , 7(3) [online] Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228901398_A_new_framework_for_selection_of_the_best_performance_appraisal_method[Accessed on 19th of November, 2022].

Mahapatro, B. B. (2010) HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. New Age International (P) Ltd, New Delhi.[Online]. Available at: https://www.pdfdrive.com/human-resource-management-d161022681.html [Accessed on 21st of November 2022]

Mansaray, H. E. (2019) 'The Role of Human Resource Management in Employee Motivation and Performance-An Overview', Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal) Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(3)[Online]. Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334900863_The_Role_of_Human_Resource_Management_in_Employee_Motivation_and_Performance-An_Overview[Accessed on 21st of November 2022].

Mello, J. A. (2013), Strategic Management of Human Resources, 3rd edn, Cengage Learning

Monappa, A. and Saiyadain, M. S. (2011), Personnel Management, 2nd En, Tata McGraw Hill, Education Pvt. Ltd. 

Murphy, K.R. & Cleveland, J.N. (1995), Understanding Performance Appraisal: Social, Organizational and GoalBased Perspectives, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Neo, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B. and Wright, P. M.(2009) Human Resource Management. The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York.